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CPU – Central Processing Unit

by BlogsAdmin

CPU – Central Processing Unit

CPU (pronounced as separate letters) is the abbreviation for central processing unit. Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called a processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.

Components of a CPU

The two typical components of a CPU include the following:

CPU

Image: Relationship between the elements of the CPU, input and output, and storage (see study guide).

Printed Circuit Boards, Microprocessors

On large machines, the CPU requires one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, it is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor. Since the 1970’s the microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other CPU implementations.

The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern CPUs are small and square and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on the underside. The CPU is inserted directly into a CPU socket, pin side down, on the motherboard.

Each motherboard will support only a specific type (or range) of CPU, so you must check the motherboard manufacturer’s specifications before attempting to replace or upgrade a CPU in your computer. Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and small fan that go directly on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat.

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CPU benchmark

by BlogsAdmin

CPU benchmark

A CPU benchmark (CPU benchmarking) is a series of tests designed to measure the performance of a computer or device CPU (or SoC). A set of standards, or baseline measurements are used to compare the performance of different systems, using the same methods and circumstances.

CPU Benchmark Tests

A typical CPU benchmark test will compare the test system against the standards for the type of CPU used. CPU specifications typically measured by a benchmark test includes the clock speed, the number of instructions executed, registry calls per cycle and overall architecture efficiency factors. The benchmark standards change between generations of CPUs and also between Intel and AMD CPUs.

CPU benchmark software will also gather and provide information on many of the main devices in a computer system, for example the processor, motherboard and chipset, memory and more.

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network

by BlogsAdmin

network

A network is defined as a group of two or more computer systems linked together. There are many types of computer networks, including the following:

  • local-area networks (LANs): The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building).
  • wide-area networks (WANs): The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone lines or radio waves.
  • campus-area networks (CANs): The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a campus or military base.
  • metropolitan-area networks MANs): A data network designed for a town or city.
  • home-area networks (HANs): A network contained within a user’s home that connects a person’s digital devices.
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    Network Characteristics

    In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize different types of networks:

  • topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies include a bus, star, and ring. See the Network topology diagrams in the Quick Reference section of Webopedia.
  • protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network .
  • architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
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    Computers on a network are sometimes called nodes. Computers and devices that allocate resources for a network are called servers.

    computer network diagramImage: Network Topology diagram

    (v.) To connect two or more computers together with the ability to communicate with each other.

    Recommended Reading: Webopedia’s Network Fundamentals Study Guide teaches the building blocks of modern network design.

    Top 5 Network Related Questions

    1. What is network software?
    2. What is network computer?
    3. What is network management?
    4. What is network security?
    5. What is a local-area network (LAN)?

    Video Description: Introduction to Computer network and IP address by Ravindrababu Ravula

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    network security

    by BlogsAdmin

    network security

    Network security is a specialized field in computer networking that involves securing a computer network infrastructure. Network security is typically handled by a network administrator or system administrator who implements the security policy, network software and hardware needed to protect a network and the resources accessed through the network from unauthorized access and also ensure that employees have adequate access to the network and resources to work.

    A network security system typically relies on layers of protection and consists of multiple components including networking monitoring and security software in addition to hardware and appliances. All components work together to increase the overall security of the computer network.

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    computer

    by BlogsAdmin

    computer

    A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).

    Modern Computers Defined

    Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery — wires, transistors, and circuits — is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software.

    Computer System

    All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

    In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

    Computer Classification: By Size and Power

    Most people associate a personal computer (PC) with the phrase computer.  A PC is a small and relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual use. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip.

    Personal computers at home can be used for a number of different applications including games, word processing, accounting and other tasks.

    Computers are generally classified by size and power as follows, although there is considerable overlap. The differences between computer classifications generally get smaller as technology advances, creating smaller and more powerful and cost-friendly components.

  • Personal computer: a small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.
  • Workstation: a powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor.
  • Minicomputer: a multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously.
  • Mainframe: a powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
  • Supercomputer: an extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
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    Webopedia Stuydy Guide Recommended Reading: Webopedia’s Computer Architecture Study Guide is an introduction to computer system basics.

    Terms

    Computational Thinking

    by BlogsAdmin

    Computational Thinking

    Computational thinking (CT) is a study of the problem-solving skills and tactics involved in writing or debugging software programs and applications.

    Computational thinking is closely related to computer science, although it focuses primarily on the big-picture process of abstract thinking used in developing computational programs rather than on the study of specific programming languages. As a result, it often serves as an introduction to more in-depth computer science courses.

    The Six Principles of Computational Thinking

    While approaches to the study of computational thinking vary, there are six primary principles of computational thinking, which include:

    1.    Connecting Computing: Understanding the connection between computers and humans.

    2.    Developing Computational Artifacts: Creating an algorithmic or computational model and the techniques needed to create artifacts that can be applied toward solving problems.

    3.    Abstracting: Identifying and defining how information can be put to computational use, and modeling these abstractions in a computational context.

    4.    Analyzing Problems and Artifacts: Evaluating the merit and feasibility of potential solutions to a problem as well as identifying and resolving possible errors with the solutions.

    5.    Communicating: Effectively explaining the purpose and meaning of a problem and its potential computational solution(s).

    6.    Working Effectively in Teams: Active collaboration and contributions from multiple participants on problem solving as well as the development and execution of computational solutions.

    Origins of the Term Computational Thinking

    Seymour Papert first used the term computational thinking in 1996 when his “An exploration in the space of mathematics educations” was published in the International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning.

    The science of computational thinking is primarily taught on the collegiate level, although in recent years it has entered the K-12 primary school levels as part of STEM–focused education curriculums. Computational thinking classes were first introduced in 2005 at Carnegie Mellon University as a broad introduction to the field of computer science.

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    quantum computing

    by BlogsAdmin

    quantum computing

    First proposed in the 1970s, quantum computing relies on quantum physics by taking advantage of certain quantum physics properties of atoms or nuclei that allow them to work together as quantum bits, or qubits, to be the computer’s processor and memory. By interacting with each other while being isolated from the external environment, qubits can perform certain calculations exponentially faster than conventional computers.

    Qubits Explained

    Qubits do not rely on the traditional binary nature of computing. While traditional computers encode information into bits using binary numbers, either a 0 or 1, and can only do calculations on one set of numbers at once, quantum computers encode information as a series of quantum-mechanical states such as spin directions of electrons or polarization orientations of a photon that might represent a 1 or a 0, might represent a combination of the two or might represent a number expressing that the state of the qubit is somewhere between 1 and 0, or a superposition of many different numbers at once.

    A quantum computer can do an arbitrary reversible classical computation on all the numbers simultaneously, which a binary system cannot do, and also has some ability to produce interference between various different numbers. By doing a computation on many different numbers at once, then interfering the results to get a single answer, a quantum computer has the potential to be much more powerful than a classical computer of the same size. In using only a single processing unit, a quantum computer can naturally perform myriad operations in parallel.

    Quantum computing is not well suited for tasks such as word processing and email, but it is ideal for tasks such as cryptography and modeling and indexing very large databases.

    Terms

    RAM – random access memory

    by BlogsAdmin

    RAM – random access memory

    RAM (pronounced ramm) is an acronym for random access memory, a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is found in servers, PCs, tablets, smartphones and other devices, such as printers.

    Main Types of RAM

    There are two main types of RAM:

    1. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
    2. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

    RAM Memory

    DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) – The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed or it will lose its contents.  DRAM is typically used for the main memory in computing devices. If a PC or smartphone is advertised as having 4-GB RAM or 16-GB RAM, those numbers refer to the DRAM, or main memory, in the device.

    More specifically, most of the DRAM used in modern systems is synchronous DRAM, or SDRAM. Manufacturers also sometimes use the acronym DDR (or DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, etc.) to describe the type of SDRAM used by a PC or server. DDR stands for double data rate, and it refers to how much data the memory can transfer in one clock cycle.

    In general, the more RAM a device has, the faster it will perform.

    SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) – While DRAM is typically used for main memory, today SRAM is more often used for system cache. SRAM is said to be static because it doesn’t need to be refreshed, unlike dynamic RAM, which needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second. As a result, SRAM is faster than DRAM. However, both types of RAM are volatile, meaning that they lose their contents when the power is turned off.

    The Difference Between Memory, RAM and Storage

    Sometimes, people get confused about the difference between memory and storage, in part because both can be measured in megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB) and terabytes (TB).

    In common usage, the term RAM is synonymous with main memory. This is where a computing system stores data that it is actively using. Storage systems, such as hard drives, network storage devices or cloud storage, are where a system saves data that it will need to access later.

    Computing systems can retrieve data from RAM very quickly, but when a device powers down, all the data that was in memory goes away. Many people have had the experience of losing a document they were working on after an unexpected power outage or system crash. In these cases, the data was lost because it was stored in system memory, which is volatile.

    By contrast, storage is slower, but it can retain data when the device is powered down. So, for example, if a document has been saved to a hard drive prior to a power outage or system crash, the user will still be able to retrieve it when the system is back up and running.

    Storage is usually less expensive than RAM on a per-gigabyte basis. As a result, most PCs and smartphones have many times more gigabytes of storage than gigabytes of RAM.

    Terms

    SSD – solid state drive

    by BlogsAdmin

    SSD – solid state drive

    Abbreviated SSD, a solid state drive is a high-performance plug-and-play storage device that contains no moving parts. SSD components include either DRAM or EEPROM memory boards, a memory bus board, a CPU, and a battery card.

    Because they contain their own CPUs to manage data storage, they are a lot faster (18MBps for SCSI-II and 35 MBps for UltraWide SCSI interfaces) than conventional rotating hard disks ; therefore, they produce highest possible I/O rates.

    SSDs are most effective for server applications and server systems, where I/O response time is crucial. Data stored on SSDs should include anything that creates bottlenecks, such as databases, swap files, library and index files, and authorization and login information.

    While solid state drive (SSD) is the most common acronym, SSD is also used for solid state disk drive, even though it does not contain an actual disk.

    Terms

    operating system – OS

    by BlogsAdmin

    operating system – OS

    The operating system (OS) is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs and applications. Computer operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the storage drives, and controlling peripheral devices, such as printers.

    For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop — it makes sure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.

    A Software Platform for Applications

    Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux.

    Operating System (OS) Diagram
                  Image: Operating System Diagram

    Classification of Operating systems

  • Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
  • Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
  • Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
  • Multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
  • Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
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    User Interaction With the OS

    As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as COPY and RENAME for copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted and executed by a part of the operating system called the command processor or command line interpreter. Graphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing and clicking at objects that appear on the screen.

    Operating System Recommended Reading: The History of Windows Operating Systems (Windows OS) from 1985 to present day.

    Most Popular Desktop Operating Systems

    The three most popular types of operating systems for personal and business computing include Linux, Windows and Mac.

    Windows

    Microsoft Windows is a family of operating systems for personal and business computers. Windows dominates the personal computer world, offering a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management, multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices.

    Mac

    Mac OS is the official name of the Apple Macintosh operating system. Mac OS features a graphical user interface (GUI) that utilizes windows, icons, and all applications that run on a Macintosh computer have a similar user interface.

    Linux

    Linux is a freely distributed open source operating system that runs on a number of hardware platforms. The Linux kernel was developed mainly by Linus Torvalds and it is based on Unix.

    According to Netmarketshare.com, the most used desktop operating system and versions used on PCs in July 2017 are:

    • Windows 7 (48.91%)
    • Windows 10 (27.63%)
    • Windows 8.1 (6.48%)
    • Windows XP (6.10%)
    • Mac OS X 10.12 (3.52%)
    • Linux (2.53%)
    • Windows 8 (1.42%)
    • Mac OS X 10.11 (1.17%)
    • Macc OS X 10.10 (0.76%)

    Desktop Operating System Market Share

    Image Source: Desktop Operating System Market Share (Net Applications.com, July 2017)

    Mobile Operating Systems

    In the same way that a desktop OS controls your desktop or laptop computer, a mobile operating system is the software platform on top of which other programs can run on mobile devices, however, these systems are designed specifically to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablet computers and other handhelds. The mobile OS is responsible for determining the functions and features available on your device, such as thumb wheel, keyboards, WAP, synchronization with applications, email, text messaging and more. The mobile OS will also determine which third-party applications (mobile apps) can be used on your device.

    Operating System Recommended Reading: Mobile Operating Systems (Mobile OS) Explained.